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China proper, Inner China, or the Eighteen Provinces〔(【引用サイトリンク】title=Glossary -- China. Library of Congress Country Studies )〕 was a term used by Western writers on the Qing dynasty to express a distinction between the core and frontier regions of China. There is no fixed extent for China proper, as many administrative, cultural, and linguistic shifts have occurred in Chinese history. One definition refers to the original area of Chinese civilization, the North China Plain; another to the "Eighteen Provinces" system of the Qing dynasty. There is no direct translation for "China proper" in the Chinese language due to differences in terminology used by the Qing to refer to the regions and the expression is controversial among scholars, particularly in China, partly because it implies the frontier regions outside China proper are in some way separate or even illegitimate territories of China. == Origin of the concept == It is not clear when the concept of "China proper" in the Western world appeared. However, it is plausible that historians during the age of empires and the fast changing borders in the eighteenth century, applied it to distinguish China's 18-provinces from its newly acquired properties. This would also apply to Great Britain proper versus the British Empire, which would encompass vast lands overseas. The same would apply to France proper in contrast to the French Empire of the time, which Napoleon managed to expand all the way to Moscow. According to Harry Harding, the concept can date back to 1827.〔Harry Harding, "The Concept of 'Greater China': Themes, Variations, and Reservations", in ''The China Quarterly'', 136 (December1993), pp. 660–686. ()〕 But as early as in 1795, William Winterbotham adopted this concept in his book. When describing the Chinese Empire under the Qing Dynasty, Winterbotham divided it into three parts: China proper, Chinese Tartary, and the States Tributary to China. He adopted the opinions of Du Halde and Grosier and suspected that the name of "China" came from Qin Dynasty. He then said: "China, properly so called,... comprehends from north to south eighteen degrees; its extent from east to west being somewhat less..."〔Winterbotham, William (1795). ''An Historical, Geographical, and Philosophical View of the Chinese Empire...'', London: Printed for, and sold by the editor; J. Ridgway; and W. Button. (pp. 35–37: General Description of the Chinese Empire → China Proper→ 1. Origin of its Name, 2. Extent, Boundaries, &c.)〕 However, to introduce China proper, Winterbotham still used the outdated 15-province system of the Ming Dynasty, which the Qing Dynasty used until 1662. Although Ming dynasty also had 15 basic local divisions, Winterbotham uses the name of Kiang-nan (江南, Jiāngnán) province, which had been called Nan-Zhili (南直隶, Nán-Zhílì) in Ming Dynasty and was renamed to Kiang-nan (i.e., Jiangnan) in 1645, the second year after the Qing Dynasty overthrew the Ming Dynasty. This 15-province system was gradually replaced by the 18-province system between 1662 to 1667. Using the 15-province system and the name of Kiang-nan Province indicates that the concept of China proper probably had appeared between 1645 and 1662 and this concept may reflect the idea that identifies China as the territory of the former Ming Dynasty after the Manchu conquest of Ming. The concept of "China proper" also appeared before this 1795 book. It can be found in ''The Gentleman's Magazine'', published in 1790, and ''The Monthly Review'', published in 1749.〔Copyright has passed, "Full View" available through Google Books.〕 In the nineteenth century, the term "China proper" was sometimes used by Chinese officials when they were communicating in foreign languages. For instance, the Qing ambassador to Britain Zeng Jize used it in an English language article, which he published in 1887.〔Marquis Tseng, "China: The Sleep and the Awakening", ''The Asiatic Quarterly Review'', Vol. III 3 (1887), p. 4.〕 Dulimbai Gurun is the Manchu name for China (中國, Zhongguo; "Middle Kingdom").〔(Hauer 2007 ), p. 117.〕〔(Dvořák 1895 ), p. 80.〕〔(Wu 1995 ), p. 102.〕 After conquering the Ming, the Manchu Qing identified their state as "China" (Zhongguo), and referred to it as "Dulimbai Gurun" in Manchu. The Manchu Qing Emperors equated the lands of the Qing state (including both "China proper" and present day Manchuria, Xinjiang, Mongolia, Tibet and other areas as "China" in both the Chinese and Manchu languages, defining China as a multi ethnic state, rejecting the idea that China only meant Han areas in "China proper", proclaiming that both Han and non-Han peoples were part of "China", using "China" to refer to the Qing in official documents, international treaties, and foreign affairs, and the "Chinese language" (Dulimbai gurun i bithe) referred to Chinese, Manchu, and Mongol languages, and the term "Chinese people" (中國人 Zhongguo ren ; Manchu: Dulimbai gurun i niyalma) referred to all Han, Manchus, and Mongol subjects of the Qing.〔(Zhao 2006 ), pp. 4, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 13, 14.〕 When the Qing conquered Dzungaria in 1759, they proclaimed that the new land was absorbed into "China" (Dulimbai Gurun) in a Manchu language memorial.〔(Dunnell 2004 ), p. 77.〕〔(Dunnell 2004 ), p. 83.〕〔(Elliott 2001 ), p. 503.〕 The Qing expounded on their ideology that they were bringing together the "outer" non-Han Chinese like the Inner Mongols, Eastern Mongols, Oirat Mongols, and Tibetans together with the "inner" Han Chinese, into "one family" united in the Qing state, showing that the diverse subjects of the Qing were all part of one family, the Qing used the phrase "Zhong Wai Yi Jia" 中外一家 or "Nei Wai Yi Jia" 內外一家 ("interior and exterior as one family"), to convey this idea of "unification" of the different peoples.〔(Dunnell 2004 ), pp. 76-77.〕 A Manchu language version of a treaty with the Russian Empire concerning criminal jurisdiction over bandits called people from the Qing as "people of the Central Kingdom (Dulimbai Gurun)".〔(Cassel 2011 ), p. 205.〕〔(Cassel 2012 ), p. 205.〕〔(Cassel 2011 ), p. 44.〕〔(Cassel 2012 ), p. 44.〕 In the Manchu official Tulisen's Manchu language account of his meeting with the Torghut Mongol leader Ayuki Khan, it was mentioned that while the Torghuts were unlike the Russians, the "people of the Central Kingdom" (dulimba-i gurun 中國, Zhongguo) were like the Torghut Mongols, and the "people of the Central Kingdom" referred to the Manchus.〔(Perdue 2009 ), p. 218.〕 While the Manchu Qing sought used China (Zhongguo) 中國 to describe non-Han areas, however some Han scholar-officials opposed the Qing Manchu Emperor's use of Zhongguo to refer to non-Han areas, using Zhongguo to mark a distinction between the culturally Han Chinese areas and the territory newly brought into the Manchu Qing empire. In the early 19th century, Wei Yuan’s ''Shengwuji'' (Military History of the Qing Dynasty) calls the inner Asian polities ''guo'', while the seventeen provinces of the traditional heartland, that is, "China proper," and three eastern provinces of Manchuria are called "''Zhongguo''."〔Joseph Esherick, "How the Qing Became China," in Joseph W. Esherick, Hasan Kayali and Eric Van Young, ed., ''Empire to Nation: Historical Perspectives on the Making of the Modern World'' (Rowman & Littlefield, 2006 ISBN 0742540308): 233.〕 Some Han Chinese Ming loyalists refused to use Zhongguo to refer to areas outside the borders of the Ming Empire such as outer Mongolia, in effect refusing to acknowledge the Qing state. The Manchu Qing referred to the Han Chinese inhabited 18 provinces as "內地十八省" (nèidì shíbā shěng), which meant the "interior region eighteen provinces", or abbreviated it as 內地 (nèidì), "interior region" and also as jùnxiàn 郡县, while they referred to the non-Han areas of China such as the Northeast, Outer Mongolia, Inner Mongolia, Xinjiang, and Tibet as 外藩 (wàifān) which means "outer feudatories" or "outer vassals", or as fānbù 藩部, "feudatory region". These waifan were fully subjected to and governed by the Qing government and were considered part of the China (中國), unlike wàiguó 外國 "outer countries" like Korea, Vietnam, and the Ryukyus, who paid tribute to the Qing but were not part of China. 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「China proper」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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